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3.2.2.1. Predators
The natural enemies for T. absoluta have been reported from their place of origin (South America).
These enemies of T. absoluta are commercially available and can be sued in its control. A previous
paper highlighted list of commercially available predators that have been usedful. These may include
Predatory bugs such as Macrolophuspygmaeus (commercially available as Macrolophuscaligionosus)
and Nesidiocoristenus have been identified as the most promising natural enemies of T. absoluta in
Europe as they are large consumers of eggs of the pest. In the Mediterranean production areas,
these two species naturally colonize tomato crops not sprayed with broad-spectirum insecticides and
they are released for biological control in greenhouse tomato crops. Other identified predators of T.
absoluta are the mirid Dicyphusmaroccanus, the nabid Nabis pseudoferusibericus and the two
phytoseid species Amblyseiusswirskii and Amblyseiuscucumeris (theses two mites in aubergine
(eggplant)). Another done by in Mediterranean region using Nesidiocoristernuis, showed highly
promising results and effectiveness of predator use when combined with other methods in controlling
T. absouta.
3.2.2.2. Parasitoids
These are one of natural enemies that can be used to control population growth of T. absoluta in
both greenhouses and open field tomato farms. They are the most widely used natural enemies of T.
absoluta in South America, where the pest originated. In Europe, parasitoids have been found
parasitinzing T. absoluta larve in the Mediterranean area. At least two species of Necremnus have
been identified in Spain and Italy. Stenomesius spp. and other undetermined species (mainly
Braconidae) occur spontaneously in infested tomato plots in Spain, indicating that native parasitoids
are adapting to the new host. Regarding parasitoids of T. aboluta eggs, Trichogrammaacheae has
been identified as a potential biological control agent of the pest and is currently being released in
commercial tomato greenhouses.
3.2.2.3. Entomopathogens
Research revealed poordocumentation on effectiveness of entomophathogens controlling T. absoluta
with the exeption of Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki. Bacillus thuringiensis, an entomophathogenic
bacterium has been used in the control of tomato plant pests and reported by many authors as very
effective bio-insecticides. It has been used extensively to control the pest in crops where IPM
programmes based on biological control are applied. Bio-insecticides like B. thuringiensis do not raise
any environmental concern as they are environmentally friendly. In addition, the entomopathogenic
nematodes Steinernema carpocapsae, Steinernemafeltiae and Heterorhabditisbacteriophora have proved
to be capable of infecting late larval instars of T. absoluta and hence be used in its control.
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The natural enemies for T. absoluta have been reported from their place of origin (South America).
These enemies of T. absoluta are commercially available and can be sued in its control. A previous
paper highlighted list of commercially available predators that have been usedful. These may include
Predatory bugs such as Macrolophuspygmaeus (commercially available as Macrolophuscaligionosus)
and Nesidiocoristenus have been identified as the most promising natural enemies of T. absoluta in
Europe as they are large consumers of eggs of the pest. In the Mediterranean production areas,
these two species naturally colonize tomato crops not sprayed with broad-spectirum insecticides and
they are released for biological control in greenhouse tomato crops. Other identified predators of T.
absoluta are the mirid Dicyphusmaroccanus, the nabid Nabis pseudoferusibericus and the two
phytoseid species Amblyseiusswirskii and Amblyseiuscucumeris (theses two mites in aubergine
(eggplant)). Another done by in Mediterranean region using Nesidiocoristernuis, showed highly
promising results and effectiveness of predator use when combined with other methods in controlling
T. absouta.
3.2.2.2. Parasitoids
These are one of natural enemies that can be used to control population growth of T. absoluta in
both greenhouses and open field tomato farms. They are the most widely used natural enemies of T.
absoluta in South America, where the pest originated. In Europe, parasitoids have been found
parasitinzing T. absoluta larve in the Mediterranean area. At least two species of Necremnus have
been identified in Spain and Italy. Stenomesius spp. and other undetermined species (mainly
Braconidae) occur spontaneously in infested tomato plots in Spain, indicating that native parasitoids
are adapting to the new host. Regarding parasitoids of T. aboluta eggs, Trichogrammaacheae has
been identified as a potential biological control agent of the pest and is currently being released in
commercial tomato greenhouses.
3.2.2.3. Entomopathogens
Research revealed poordocumentation on effectiveness of entomophathogens controlling T. absoluta
with the exeption of Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki. Bacillus thuringiensis, an entomophathogenic
bacterium has been used in the control of tomato plant pests and reported by many authors as very
effective bio-insecticides. It has been used extensively to control the pest in crops where IPM
programmes based on biological control are applied. Bio-insecticides like B. thuringiensis do not raise
any environmental concern as they are environmentally friendly. In addition, the entomopathogenic
nematodes Steinernema carpocapsae, Steinernemafeltiae and Heterorhabditisbacteriophora have proved
to be capable of infecting late larval instars of T. absoluta and hence be used in its control.
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